Each month, it is my intention to feature a goddess from various religious traditions. Many religions have a patriarchal past, and often, the rich mythologies of sacred females are lost in gender-specific choosiness. Girl Power started way before the Spice Girls!
This week, I am using a paper I found from my undergraduate studies to introduce Sarasvati, a goddess within the Hindu tradition. Some would consider Hinduism to be polytheistic (worshiping more than one deity), as there are 330 million deities accounted for within Hindu mythology. Of these vast sacred personalities, though, a few gods and goddesses seem to "rank" higher in importance. Many Hindu's identify themselves by the name of the personal god or goddess they worship. I am reading a great book right now, "Essential Hinduism" by Steven Rosen, that explains about 80% of all "Hindus" are actually "Vaishnavas", meaning they primarily worship the god Vishnu. Vishnu remains the most popular god for a slew of possible reasons, such as: his image is shown centered between that of the god Brahma (who represents creation) and the goddess Shiva (who represents destruction, and nescience). Vishnu is a conceivable balance between the two. Vishnu is also a central character to many important sacred texts, such as the "Mahabarata", a sacred epic in which Krishna, a manifestation of Vishnu, successfully intervenes between a warring family). Though Vishnu may be a most popular god for devotion all around, Hindus may also choose to worship a specific and "lesser" deity for particular purposes. Ganesha, represented as an elephant's head, is appealed to by many as the patron of arts, sciences, intellect, wisdom, and the remover of obstacles. It is no surprise Ganesha is popular among students. To summarize, certain gods and goddess have a larger scope of influence, while others retain a specific identity and purpose in devotion. Though the pantheon of deities may seem overwhelming, a deeper philosophical truth pervades Hindu theology. These sacred figures are a means to focus on the Ultimate, the One, that transcends all else. Some Hindus and scholars alike may argue that this is a monotheistic religion at its core. Complexity and paradox are certainly essential to this mystifying tradition. The goddess studied below, one could imagine, fits somewhere into a "less influential" tier of deities, perhaps similar to Ganesha, as opposed to that of Vishnu or Shiva. I touch on some of these points in the paper, but wanted to provide some preliminary context to the goddess, and her assumed position within the Hindu consciousness. As you will read, gods and goddess are venerated through much visual imagery in appeal to their specific characteristics, and also as a vehicle to transcend the illusion of identity and comprehend the interconnectedness between all things, the Oneness of all things. Sarasvati could be one of the earliest documented goddesses within this religious tradition, which is just one reason why this representation of the sacred in feminine form is this months goddess! Without further adieu...
The religious tradition of Hinduism—the form, focus, and myriad of practices it is known for—has transformed for over 4,000 years. An essential concept within this religion remains that of dharma, translated in short as right way of living, or service (Rosen 35). In the Hindu tradition, individuals and groups of people, often based upon caste, live according to a particular dharma. One particularly popular way of life for Hindus is that of bhakti, or devotion to a particular god or goddess. Hindus often refer to themselves by the god or goddess worshipped by their family; if a group worships the major god Vishnu, they are beheld as Vaishnavites. Three deities most fervently revered remain the gods Brahma, Vishnu, and the goddess Shakti. Sarasvati, though not a major goddess as one of 330 million in the complete pantheon of Hindu deities, possesses highly specific gifts and identity. As the religious tradition evolves in practice, so do the functions of the gods and goddesses (Ludwig 38). The identity of Sarasvati slowly developed through time in association with the geographical and cultural surroundings of religious adherents. Many religions emerging from the Indus valley region share similar vernacular and worldviews. Due to this geographical proximity, Jainism, a tradition formed out of Hinduism, shares the goddess character of Sarasvati with Hindus. A distinct difference in theology between the two traditions, however, modifies the role of Sarasvati within the Jain worldview. Within this paper, I will explore the origins and characteristics of the goddess Sarasvati, as well as how those are expressed in devotion through visual imagery, and the differences between the Hindu and Jain interpretation of this captivating goddess.
The notion of the goddess first took shape in association with fertility. This information is primarily based upon terra cotta figures, “of what were almost certainly mother goddesses… found in Indus valley sites that are probably as early as 2500-2000 BCE.” (Mitchell 4). Throughout the ages, reproduction remains a woman’s demonstration of fertility. The emphasis on a goddess with a fertile, child-bearing presence is suggested by the humanly form within the terra cotta artifacts:
“…Those from Harappa… were well made with emphasis on feminine characteristics having wide hips, narrow waist, and sometimes large breasts. Despite the difficulty of ascertaining their function, it is probable that they had some connection with fertility and that they symbolized for their worshippers the creative principle which governed their agricultural economy.” (Mitchell 4).
Associating the female gift of reproduction with the notion of creation and agriculture implies a reverence of fecundities power. These figures suggest that instilled within the goddess archetype is the essential hope for bounty and life. “All goddesses… of whatever mien, possess a common thread which can usually be traced back to concepts of fertility” (Blurton 156). The necessity of fecundity, expressed through the creation and worship female figures, ignited what grew into an assortment of goddesses, the venerable in female form.
Among the cult of the goddess in the Indus valley during the Vedic Age (Mitchell 4), we can find early roots of the goddess today referred to as Sarasvati. “Her origins are obscure, but it is possible that she once had something to do with the river Sarasvati in Rajasthan or with water in some other way” (Mitchell 4). The river Sarasvati is fixed within the Punjab region, and acts as a powerful factor in the mortality of the community. Correlation with a body of water links Sarasvati to the livelihood of the agricultural community, a force beyond the strength of human capacity. As a source of survival, the river becomes an active site for the sacred rituals of the surrounding people. “The banks of the Sarasvati were considered ideal locations for Vedic sacrifices to be performed” (Blurton 174). Given the importance of sacrifices within the Vedas, performed by the rishis, or priestly class, a sacred location staging these rituals would be of great importance to the spiritual life of the community. These connections to water remain part of Sarasvati’s identity today, but the association is modified.
Those within the Vedic age were most concerned with the performance of sacrifices and agricultural prosperity, and therefore, the spirit of Sarasvati pertained to such issues. In a later age, conversely, followers place emphasis on qualities of the divine that seem to appeal to the contemporary life experience. Sarasvati displays gifts that echo a cultural experience within the physical world, but also point toward the Ultimate. Her identity becomes individualized, separating her from other goddesses. This emphasis on the humanities and individualization illuminates the profound connection between the human experience and the concept of the divine.
“Since the end of the Vedic period she has become increasingly associated with the spoken word, and as such is known also by the epithet Vagdevi, ‘goddess of speech’. Given the central relevance of the spoken word in Hindu ritual in the form of reading aloud from texts, and the recitation of mantras, the importance of Sarasvati as Vagdevi becomes apparent” (Blurton 174-175).
The goddess’ association with speech evolved to encompass all intellectual pursuits, including music and poetry (Blurton 175). Sarasvati’s image often contains four arms, holding a lotus bud, rosary, a book, and the vina, a stringed instrument. (Mitchell 5). The book and vina symbolize her identity with the creative arts. Considering the growing connection between individual worshipers and their chosen gods, Sarasvati intrigues many invested in creative or intellectual pursuits. Sarasvati is thought to have eventually invented the written word, symbolized by her holding a manuscript. In relation to her Pre-Vedic and Vedic origins as a river goddess, Sarasvati’s identity transforms to “the goddess of eloquence, mastering the rivers of speech…” (Vitsaxis 80). This revolution of identity demonstrates the flexibility of her role in the individual conscious of worshipers. Sarasvati’s lotus bud and rosary denote “the symbol of piety” (Vitsaxis 80). While the goddess invented writing, and symbolizes the intellectual and creative arts, Sarasvati is also thought to “preside over and protect wisdom” (Vitsaxis 80). Associations with wisdom, speech, and music—the intellect and the arts—are cultivated through the consistent imagery of the goddess.
Along with the visual arts, the identity of Sarasvati is explored through a rich mythological tradition. Sarasvati’s protection over wisdom comes into conflict with other divine pursuits in Hindu mythology: “In mythology we first find Sarasvati as Vishnu’s consort. However, her relations with the goddess of wealth, Lakshmi, were not harmonious. They were jealous of each other and could never be reconciled. ‘Wherever there are riches, wisdom goes away, and wherever wisdom prevails, riches get no respect” (Vitsaxis 80). This conflict lead to Sarasvati later being shown as consort to the great god Brahma, part of the male trimurti. Hindu gods are often paired with a female divinity, or shakti. This pairing of the two sexes relates to conceptual theories of the Ultimate within Hindu thought: “…one should start from its fundamental idea of universal unity, which involves both a continuous division into pairs of opposites in conflict with each other and a continuous merger of them into a harmonious synthesis. The Absolute splits itself into pairs of opposites in conflict as well as co-operation with each other” (Vitsaxis 75). As Brahma’s shakti, Sarasvati is seen riding on a goose or peacock, the same vehicles of the male god.
Sarasvati is not revered as just the consort or wife of Brahma, though. In Shaktism, the practice of devotion to the goddess Shakti, “the worship of the feminine form of the divine has taken on a particular ‘exclusivity’; there the worship focuses especially on the goddess, so much so that the male aspect of the Divine becomes secondary” (Vitsaxis 93). This practice is also referred to as Tantrism. In this spiritual framework, “the popular pictures intended for Tantrics naturally project a feminine divinity. There is to be found a feminine Supreme Trinity… parallel to that of the great male gods.” (Vitsaxis 93). As one can deduce from the female-centered practice of Tantrism, Hindu mythology is varied. The personalities of various gods and goddess ranges slightly based on the followers own brand of bhakti.
The distinctive identities of the divine, as well as the surrounding myths, are portrayed primarily through visual imagery. Visual images serve an exceptionally predominant role in Hindu culture and practice. Paintings and sculpture vividly express many forms of individual gods and goddesses, as well as depict myths appropriate to the tradition. Particularly throughout Hinduism, visual images are created expressing the identities and capabilities of the gods. These images serve as explanation to worshipers and viewers, as the figures often contain symbolic elements to demonstrate their identity. They also become devices on which to fixate the eye in practice of directing worship or meditation towards the god or goddess, in the act of gazing: “A gaze is a projection of conventions that enables certain possibilities of meaning, certain forms of experience, and certain relations among participants” (Morgan 4). Viewing these images can depict or recount the story of a deity or respective myth for worshipers, but a spiritual experience can be instigated upon the act of gazing (Morgan 8). Creating and meditating on visual imagery constitutes a large part of devotional activity for many worshipers. The art, however, does not maintain relevance with practitioners and worshippers alone: “Visual culture can be a powerful part of the shared apparatus of memory, national citizenship, and the socialization of the young and converts” (Morgan 9). In this respect, visual images depicting gods and goddesses are just as much informative as they are experiential. The experiential quality of an image opens up a possibility for engaging or informing those previously outside of the practicing community or culture. Beyond the religion of Hinduism, Hindu imagery and mythology actively influences much of Indian culture, and has for centuries.
Hinduism’s cultural influence seeps into many surrounding groups of people. Often gods and goddesses stretch beyond specific traditions or practices of Indian religions “It is also customary for the laypeople to worship gods and goddesses who control and protect various aspects of human existence” (Ludwig 149). Jainism, a religious group characterized by their dedication to ahisma, or non-violence, worship Sarasvati as the goddess of learning. Jains regard the goddess not as an ultimate source of wisdom, but as a guiding light or example on which to regard one’s thoughts. Her figure can often be seen within art of Jain constructed libraries (Ludwig 149). Just as Sarasvati represents the powerful creative force in feminine form, the goddess remains only part of what is considered the One That Is: “This kind of worship can be distracting, of course, since these gods are not ultimate. Yet many Jains do find it helpful to worship, for example, the guardian gods of the regions” (Ludwig 149). Such gods and goddesses hold power within an understanding of their separation as an illusion from the Ultimate—a paradoxical mentality similar between the Hindus and Jains.
The versatility of Sarasvati’s identity throughout history and surrounding cultures demonstrates the adaptable nature of the gods and goddess. The functions of the divine, and therefore the respective images of gods and goddesses, change with the evolving needs of devotees. The visual manifestations of the divine serve to inform, express vivacity, and create an experience, mustering awe within the viewer. This practice coexists to display the Ultimate Reality, which pierces through the illusions and mirage of images. Initiated as a bearer of fertility in association with the river Sarasvati, the goddess has been reinterpreted throughout history. These adaptations exist across cultures, observable through varying mythologies and visual imagery. As part of an intricate hierarchy, Sarasvati remains just one deity in the Hindu tradition’s overwhelming network of the divine
Bibliography
Blurton, T. Richard. Hindu Art. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1993.
Ludwig, Theodore M. The Sacred Paths of the East: Third Edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc., 2006.
Mitchell, A. G. Hindu Gods and Godesses. England: Crown, 1982.
Morgan, David. The Sacred Gaze: Religious Visual Culture in Theory and Practice. London, England: University of California Press, 2005.
Rosen, Steven H. Essential Hinduism. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers, 2006.
Vitsaxis, Vassilis G. Hindu Epics, Myths, and Legends in Popular Illustrations. New Dehli, India: Oxford University Press, 1977
